Footnotes
1 Pursuant to Supreme Court Rule 37, this brief is filed with the written consent of all parties. The parties' consent letters are on file with the Court. This brief has not been authored, either in whole or in part, by counsel for any party, and no person or entity, other than amicus curiae or their counsel has made a monetary contribution to the preparation or submission of this brief.
2 Amy Goodman, Shackles and Ivy: The Secret History of How Slavery Helped Build America's Elite Colleges, Democracy Now (Oct. 30,2013), httpy/www.democracynow.org/2013/10/30/shackles_and_ivy_the_secret_history.
3 Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony & Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America's Universities 47 (2013).
4
5 Id. at 19.
6 Id. at 29.
7 Id. at 119.
8 Id. at 113.
9 Wilder, supra note 3, at 118.
10 Id. at 117-18.
11 Id. at 118.
12 Id. at 48.
13 Id.
14 Id.
15 Id. at 52.
16 The Charters of Freedom: A New World is At the Hand, Nat'l Archives, http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_virginia.html (last visited Oct. 27, 2015).
17 Wilder, supra note 3, at 111.
18 Id. at 81.
19 Id. at 122.
20 Id. at 111.
21 John Witherspoon 1768-94*, The Presidents of Princeton University (Nov. 26, 2013), https://www.princeton.edu/pub/presidents/witherspoon/.
22 Devin Bent, Posterity and the Union: In Retirement, Madison Holds Court as Sole Remaining Founding Father, Montpelier James Madison U. Mag., Winter 2001, available at http://www.jmu.edu/montpelier/issues/winter01/madison.htm.
23 Id.
24 W. Barksdale Maynard, Princeton In the Confederacy's Service: 150 Years after the Civil War, Rebel Ties Remain Little-Known, Princeton Alumni Wkly. Mar. 23, 2011, available at https://paw.princeton.edu/issues/2011/03/23/pages/4092/index.xml?page=2& (Several Princeton Graduates fought for the confederacy and served as clergymen, throughout the war, at least seven Confederate brigadier generals were Princeton men.).
25 Christopher Tomlins, Transplant and Timing: Passages in the Creation of an Anglo-America Law of Slavery, 10 Berkeley L. Scholarship Repository 389, 390 (2009).
26 John R. Wunder, The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, Slave Codes 128 (2008).
27 See generally Francis D. Colinano, Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy (2006) (ebook).
28 Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, Ferris State University, http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/what.htm (last visited Oct. 27, 2015).
29 See generally Emily S. Renschler & Janet Monge, The Samuel George Morton Cranial Collection: Historical Significance and New Research, Expedition, Nov. 2008, at 30 available at http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/50-3/renschler.pdf.
30 Id.
31 Wilder, supra note 3, at 192.
32 Id. at 106.
33 Id.
34 Emory's Leslie Harris Says We Should Remember The Racist Roots Of American Colleges As We Think About What Went Wrong At OU And Other Schools, Geo. Mason U. Hist. News Network, Mar. 26, 2015, http://historynewsnetwork.Org/article/158939#sthash.LhRpLRPb.dpuf.
35 Wunder, supra note 26, at 128.
36 Id. at 30.
37 Wilder, supra note 3, at 280.
38 Id. at 3.
39 Id.
40 William Goodell, The American Slave Code in Theory and Practice 2 (1853).
41 Id.
42 Junius P. Rodriguez, Slavery In the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia 271 (2007).
43 Stuart Buck, The History of Black Education in America, Acting White: The Ironic Legacy of Desegregation 42 (2010).
44 Id. at 44.
45 Id.
46 Id. at 45.
47 Nina Mjagkil, Loyalty in Time of Trial: The African American Experience During World War I 4 (2011).
48 Heather Andrea Williams, Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom 142 (Waldo E. Martin Jr. et al. eds. 2005).
49 Id.
50 Id. at 149.
51 Id. at 150.
52 Mjagkil, supra note 47, at 4.
53 Bartholomew F. Bland & Irma Watkins-Owen, Winfred Rembert: Amazing Grace 16 (2012).
54 Mjagkil, supra note 47, at 4.
55 Id.
56 The 1930s Education: Overview Gale U.S. History in Context, http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/uhic/ReferenceDetailsPage/Reference DetailsWindow?query=&prodId=UHIC&displayGroupName=Refe rence&limiter =&disableHighlighting=true&displayGroups=&so rtBy=&zid=&search_within_results=&action=2&catId=&activit yType=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3468301121&source=Book mark&u=sand55832&jsid=55d9d90c4bad282ee2debc3c18227fed (last visited Oct. 27, 2015).
57 Harv. L. Sch., Standard 509 Information Report (2014), http://hls.harvard.edu/contenT/uploads/2015/02/Std509InfoReport20142.pdf.
58 Yale L. Sch., Standard 509 Information Report (2014), http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/About/ABA509report_Yale.pdf.
59 Colum. L. Sch., Standard 509 Information Report (2014), https://web.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/admission s/jd/files/2014/std509inforeport-101-101-12-10-2014_13-33-20.pdf.
60 Gina Crosley-Corcoran, Explaining White Privilege To A Broke White Person, OccupyWallStreet.Net, http://occupywallstreet.net/story/explaining-white-privilege-broke-white-person (last visited Oct. 15, 2015).
61 Justin C. Worland, Legacy Admit Rate at 30 Percent, Harv. Crimson, May 11, 2011, http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2011/5/11/admissions-fitzsimmons-legacy-legacies/.
62 Pamela Paul, Being a Legacy Has Its Burden, N.Y. Times, Nov. 4, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/06/education/edlife/being-a-legacy-has-its-burden.html?_r=2&ref=edlife.
63 Justin C. Worland, Harvard Accepts Record Low 6.2 Percent of Applicants to the Class of 2015, Harv. Crimson, Mar. 31, 2011, http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2011/3/31/percent-class-students-year/.
64 Russell J. Skiba et al., Race is Not Neutral: A National Investigation of African American and Latino Disproportionality in School Discipline, 40 Sch. Psychol. Rev. 85, 85 (2011).
65 Daniel Losen et al., Ctr. for Civ. Rts. Remedies, Are We Closing The School Discipline Gap? (2015).
66 Id.
67 Id.
68 Id. at 6.
69 Id.
70 Id. at 25.
71 Id.
72 Nancy A. Heitzeg, Education or Incarceration: Zero Tolerance Policies and the School to Prison Pipeline, F. on Pub. Pol'y, no. 2, 2009, at 1, 12, available at http://forumonpublicpolicy.com/summer09/archivesummer09/heitzeg.pdf.
73 Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Dep't of Educ., Civil Rights Data Collection Data Snapshot: School Discipline 7 (Mar. 21, 2014), available at http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf.
74 Id.
75 Id. at 1.
76 Id.
77 Randy Borum et al., What Can Be Done About School Shootings?, 39 Educ. Researcher 27, 28 (2010).
78 Mitchell, S. David, Zero Tolerance Policies: Criminalizing Childhood and Disenfranchising the Next Generation of Citizens, 92 Wash. U. L. Rev. 271, 272 (2014).
79 Id.
80 Id.
81 Id.
82 Monique W. Morris, Afr. Am. Pol'y F., Race, Gender and the School-To-Prison Pipeline: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls 2 (2012).
83 David, supra note 78, at 293-94.
84 Heitzeg, supra note 72, at 12.
85 Id.
86 Id.
87 Morris, supra note 82, at 5.
88 Alicia Darensbourg et al., Overrepresentation of African American Males in Exclusionary Discipline: The Role of School-Based Mental Health Professionals in Dismantling the School to Prison Pipeline, 1 J. Afr. Am. Males Educ. 196, 199 (2010).
89 Christopher A. Mallett, The School-To-Prison Pipeline: A Comprehensive Assessment 1 (2015).
90 India Geronimo, Systemic Failure: The School-to-Prison Pipeline and Discrimination Against Poor Minority Students, 13 J. L. Soc'y 281, 297-98 (2011).
91 Dorothy E. Roberts, Foreword: Race, Vagueness, and the Social Meaning of Order-Maintenance Policing, 89 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 775, 805 (1999).
92 Id.
93 Lisa A. Crooms, Speaking Partial Truths and Preserving Power: Deconstructing White Supremacy, Patriarchy, and the Rape Corroboration Rule in the Interest of Black Liberation, 40 How. L.J. 459, 475 (1997).
94 N. Jeremi Dura, The Central Park Five, the Scottsboro Boys, and the Myth of the Bestial Black Man, 25 Cardozo L. Rev. 1315, 1326 (2004).
95 Victims also include the mentally ill and non-racial minorities.
96 See Richard Peréz-Peña, Fatal Police Shootings: Accounts Since Ferguson, N.Y. Times, Apr. 8, 2015, available at http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/04/08/us/fatal-police-shooting-accounts.html; Naomi Zack, White Privilege and Black Rights: The Injustice of U.S. Police Racial Profiling and Homicide 64 (2015).
97 Zack, supra note 96, at 64 (“[F]rom 2005-2012, a white police officer killed a Black person about twice a week; 18[%] of Blacks killed were under 21, compared to 8.7[%] of whites killed. [And,] 136 African Americans were killed by police in 2012, … one every 28 hours.”).
98 See id.; see also Rick Ayers & William Ayers, Breathe: Notes on White Supremacy and the Fierce Urgency of Now, in The Assault on Communities of Color xi, xii (Kenneth Fasching-Varner & Nicolas Daniel Hartlep eds., 2015).
99 Paul D. Grant & Carl A. Grant, To Be Men and Women: The Black Struggle for Justice Continues, in The Assault on Communities of Color, supra note 98, at 173 (2015).
100 Kenneth Lawson, Police Shootings of Black Men and Implicit Racial Bias: Cant's We All Just Get Along, 37 U. How. L. Rev. 339, 339-40 (2015); Daren Lenard Hutchinson, Continually Reminded of Their Inferior Position: Social Dominance, Implicit Bias, Criminality, and Race, 46 Was. U. J.L. & Pol'y 23, 23-24 (2014) (“Reports of racially charged police killings of Black men have generated so much media attention that the Associated Press has named these stories the ‘top news' of 2014.”).
101 See Hutchinson, supra note 100, at 110; Zack, supra note 96, at 18 (“The sense that rights have been violated intensifies when police who kill in such instances fail to be criminally indicted or are acquitted in criminal trial for manslaughter or murder.”).
102 Zack, supra note 96, at 25 (citing public opinion polls).
103 Ayers & Ayers, supra note 98, at xii.
104 Id. at xiii (“[A]fter Mike Brown's murder justice-seeking people said, ‘Hands up, don't shoot!’ and, after Eric Garner was choked to death, [justice-seeking people] chanted ‘I can't breathe!’ And the cohering, crystallizing sentiment has become a simple phrase with massive implications pointing toward profound and radical changes: Black Lives Matter!”); Zack, supra note 96, at 99.
105 Again, by white privilege we mean the understanding that “being born with white skin in America affords certain unearned privileges in life that people of another skin color … are not afforded. See Crosley-Corcoran, supra note 60.
106 Ayers & Ayers, supra note 98, at xii; Melinda Jackson & Dari Green, Contradicting Realities in the Mythical Post-Racial: America Blinded to Matters of Color?, in The Assault on Communities of Color, supra note 98, at 88.
107 Berea Coll. v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908).
108 Missouri ex rel Gaines v. Canada, 305 U.S. 337 (1938)
109 Sipuel v. Bd. of Regents of Univ. of Okla., 332 U.S. 631 (1948).
110 Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950).
111 McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637 (1950).
112 Fisher v. Hurst, 333 U.S. 147 (1948).
113 United States v. Fordice, 505 U.S. 717 (1992).
114 DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312, 314 (1974).
115 Regents of Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).
116 Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).
117 Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244 (2003).
118 Fisher v. Univ. of Tex. at Austin, 133 S. Ct. 2411 (2013).
119 Schuette v. Coal. to Def Affirmative Action, 134 S. Ct. 1623 (2014).
120 William M. Wiecek, Structural Racism and the Law in America Today: An Introduction, 100 Ky. L.J. 1, 2 (2012).
121 Id.
122 Id.
123 Id.
124 The majority has often discussed white supremacy “to describe white supremacy groups. See, e.g., Hunter v. Underwood, 471 U.S. 222, 229 (1985); Walker v. City of Birmingham, 388 U.S. 307, 319-20 (1967).
125 Ariela J. Gross, What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America 17 (2008).
126 A. Gillmer, Suing for Freedom: Interracial Sex, Slave Law, and Racial Identity in the Post-Revolutionary and Antebellum South, 82 N.C. L. Rev. 535, 537 (2004).
127 Id. at 541.
128 Id.
129 See generally Paul Finkelman, Scott v. Sandford: The Court's Most Dreadful Case and How It Changed History, 82 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 3 (2007).
130 See Section I.
131 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 559 (1896).
132 Osamudia R. James, White Like Me: The Negative Impact of the Diversity Rationale on White Identity Formation, 89 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 425, 427 (2014).
133 Gary Peller, Toward Critical Cultural Pluralism: Progressive Alternatives to Mainstream Civil Rights Ideology, in Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement 124, 132 (1995).
134 Peter G. Schmidt, Color and Money: How Rich White Kids are Winning the War over College Affirmative Action 31 (2007).
135 Id.
136 Akhil Reed Amar & Neal Kumar Katyal, Bakke's Fate, 43 UCLA L. Rev. 1745, 1749 (1996).
137 James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time, in The Price of the Ticket: Collected Non-Fiction 1948-1985 333, 372 (1985).
